http://www.web-light.nl/AMALGAM/EN/frame_r.html#V
Dental Amalgam Scientific Facts
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Editor :
Bernard Windham,
(Organization: Florida Public Service Commission )
RR2, Box 385A
Tallahassee,Fl 32322
904-878-9024
E-mail [email hidden]
l. Some Facts
II. Systemic Mercury Intake Level from Amalgam Fillings
III. Medical Studies Finding Health Problems Related to Amalgam Fillings.
IV. Health Effects from Dental Personnel Exposure to Mercury Vapor.
V. Results of Removal of Amalgam Fillings.
VI. Scientists and Government Panels or Bodies That Have Found Amalgam Fillings
to be Unsafe.
References to this document
More science :
DAMS,Inc. (Dental Amalgam Mercury Syndrome,Support Group) :
SUMMARY OF SCIENTIFIC FACTS
I. Some Facts.
1. Dental amalgam contains about 50 % mercury.
The average filling has 1/2 gram of mercury.
2.Mercury is the most toxic of the toxic metals. Mercury is:
(a) cytotoxic (kills cells) (2,27,33) [106,147,148,150,160].
(b) neurotoxic (accumulates in the brain and damages brain cells) (27,34,48)
[85,111,147,148,160,162]
(c) immunotoxic (damages and weakens the immune system)
(27,34,35,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,60) [77,78,105,117,127,128,146,155,160,226]
(d) nephrotoxic (toxic to kidneys) (59),[157,203,211,223]
(e) endocrine system-disrupting chemical (affects pituitary gland)
[85,105,113,146,149]
(f) reproductive and developmental toxin (2,3,4,20,22,24,31,37,38,39,49,41,49)
[105,146,149,160,204].
(g) causes cardiovascular damage and disease including damage to vascular
endothelial cells, increased white cell count, and decreased oxyhemoglobin
level (47,201,202,205,232).
(h) causes immune system damage resulting in alergies, asthma, and multiple
sensitivities(228,230)
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3. Mercury crosses the blood brain barrier and is selectively stored in the
pituitary gland of the brain. [48,85,113,146,162] The pituitary gland controls
the body's endocrine system and secretes hormones that control most bodily
processes, including the immune system and reproductive systems[146].
4. Mercury's biochemical damage at the cellular level include DNA damage,
alteration of protein structure, alteration of the transport of calcium,
induction of free radical formation, inhibition of glutathione peroxidase
enzyme, endothial cell damage, and immune system damage. Only a few micrograms
of mercury severely disturb cellular function and inhibit nerve growth(181).
98% of mercury found in the brain is in the methyl mercury form, the most toxic
form(220). Most mercury in saliva was also organic.
5. Hormonal secretions of the pituitary gland that control bodily processes are
at extremely low levels and extremely low levels of mercury are required to
adversely affect hormonal secretions of the pituitary gland. Hormonal
secretions affected at levels much lower than acute toxicity effects normally
tested for[105,146].
6. Because of the extreme toxicity of mercury, only 1/2 gram is required to
contaminate a 10 acre lake to the extent that a health warning would be issued
by the government to not eat the fish[151,160]. Over half the rivers and lakes
in Florida have such health warnings[160].
7. Some Florida panthers that eat birds and animals that eat fish containing
very low levels of mercury(about 1 part per million) have died from chronic
mercury poisoning[160]. Since mercury is an estrogenic chemical and
reproductive toxin, the majority of the rest cannot reproduce. The average male
Florida panther has higher estrogen levels than females, due to the estrogenic
properties of mercury[105,160]. Similar is true of some other animals at the
top of the food chain like alligators.
8. In addition to having estrogenic effects, mercury has other documented
hormonal effects including effects on the reproductive system resulting in
lowered sperm counts, defective sperm cells, and lowered testosterone levels in
males and lowered levels of brain neurotransmitters dopamine, serotonin, and
noreprenephrine[105,107,140,141],
9. An average amalgam filling contains 1/2 gram of mercury, and the average
adult had at least 5 grams of mercury in fillings(unless most has vaporized).
Mercury in solid form is not stable and vaporizes continuously, so that within
10 years more than half has been transferred to the brain and body of the
host(34,47)[182].
10. The level of mercury in people with amalgam fillings causes a body burden
of mercury much higher than they could get from eating contaminated fish from
Florida waters with government health warnings. (WHO,183)
11. Running shoes with 1/2 gram of mercury in the heels were banned by several
states, because the amount of mercury was considered dangerous to public health
and created a serious disposal problem. Mercury from dental offices and human
waste from people with amalgam fillings has much higher levels and is a major
source of mercury in Florida waters. One study found dental offices discharge
into waste water between 65 and 842 milligrams per dentist per day(231),
amouting to several hundred grams per year per office. This is in addition to
air emissions.
* More detailed descriptions and references are contained in [105,160].
References in parentheses were compiled by the Australasian Society of Oral
Medicine and Toxicology. References in brackets were compiled by Bernard
Windham.
II. Systemic Mercury Intake Level from Amalgam Fillings
1. Mercury in solid form is not stable and evaporates continuously from amalgam
fillings in the mouth, being transferred over a period of time to the
host(211). Mercury vapor from amalgam is the single largest source of systemic
mercury intake for persons with amalgam fillings. (16,17,19,57,)
[78-82,94,111,126,129,130,138,161,183,211,216]. Amalgam also releases
significant amounts of tin and copper which also have toxic effects, with
organic tin formed in the body being much more neurotoxic than
mercury[185,222].
2. Mercury vapor is absorbed at a rate of 80% through the lungs into the
arterial blood and is also absorbed my oral mucosa. (18,31,40)
[77,79,84,94,96,117,133,211,222]
3. On average for a person having amalgam fillings, vapor from amalgam fillings
amounts to about 80% of total systemic intake. [78-82,93,94,179,211]
4. Having dissimilar metals in the teeth(e.g.-gold and mercury) causes
electrical currents and much higher mercury vapor levels and levels in tissues.
(19,27,30) Average mercury levels in gum tissue near amalgam fillings are 250
ppm, but are often 1200 ppm near a gold cap on an amalgam
filling(30,25,47)[186,194]. Concetrations of mercury in oral mucosa for a
population of patients with 6 or more amalgam fillings taken during oral
surgery were 20 times the level of controls[174]. The level of mercury and
copper released from high copper amalgam is as much as 50 times that of low
copper amalgaums[191]. High levels of mercury vaporize and are picked up by the
body and bloodstream during dental work(high-speed grinding) on amalgam
fillings, which results in much higher levels in the heart, brain, liver, and
kidneys(219,205,etc.).
5. The average level of mercury in the urine of a person with amalgam
fillings(1.9 parts per million) is approximately twice that of the FDA and EPA
Action Level for bans on eating fish and food due to high mercury level(1 ppm)
and can be as much as 50 times the EPA Critical Level. [134, 154,etc.,160]
The U.S. Agency for toxic Substnces and Disease Registry standard (MRL) for
acute inhalation exposure to mercury vapor is 0.02 mcg Hg/m3 and the MrL for
chronic inhalation exposure is 0.014 mcg Hg/m3. Common levels found in persons
with amalgam fillings are over 100 times these MRLs(217,209). Thus persons with
amalgam fillings have levels of intraoral mercury vapor higher than the level
considered to have significant health risk.
6. There is only a weak correlation between blood or hair mercury levels and
body burden or level in a target organ[157]. Feces has a significant mercury
burden in people with amalgam fillings, having a higher correlation to systemic
body burden than urine or blood, which tend to correlate with recent exposure
level.(47) [79,80] As damage occurs to kidneys over time, mercury is less
effeciently eliminated[157].
7. Mercury accumulates in the brain, liver, kidneys, heart,and oral
mucosa(1,20,31,34) [77,79,84,85,94 ,111,149,205,211,219]
8. The number of amalgam surfaces has a statistically significant correlation
to :
(a) blood plasma mercury level (17) [84,133,211]
(b) urine mercury level (16) [76,77,138]
(c) oral mucosa and saliva (18)[77,79,94,117,199,211,222]
(d) feces mercury [79,94,117]
(e) pituitary gland (14,16,19,25) [85,113]
(f) brain occipital cortex (14,16,19,25,34) [85,111,149,211]
9. A person with amalgam fillings has daily systemic intake from mercury vapor
of between 3 and 70 micrograms of mercury, with the average being at least 12
micrograms per day.[77,83,85,179,211]. Total intake is proportional to the
number and extent of amalgam surfaces, but other factors such as chewing gum
and drinking hot liquids influence the intake significantly.(18,28,31,56)
[135-139,193,211]. Vapor emissions range up to 200 mcg/M3 (47)[193] and are
much higher after chewing. Approx. 39% of those having amalgam fillings tested
in a large German study had ingested mercury levels exceeding the WHO mercury
standard(199).
10. The blood and kidney mercury load of a person with amalgam fillings is
often 5 times that of a similar person without.(16)[79,80,82,84,93,111,136,138
The average blood level for one large population was 24.8 nmol/l[176]. Normal
blood levels are less than 20 ppb, but health effects have been observed in
patients in the upper part of this range[196]. A Swedish study estimated the
total amount mercury swallowed per day from intra-oral vapor was 10 micrograms
per day[177]. Other studies have found similar amounts(211).
11.Teeth are living tissue and have massive communication with the rest of the
body via blood, lymph, and nerves. Mercury vapor (and bacteria in teeth ) have
paths to the rest of the body. (34,etc.) One German study of mercury loss from
vapor in unstimulated saliva found the saliva of those with amalgams had 5
times as much mercury as for controls[179].
12. Mercury crosses the blood brain barrier and is stored preferentially in the
pituitary gland, hypothalamus, and occipital cortex in direct proportion to the
number and extent of amalgam surfaces.(1,13,19,20,25,34,55a) [85,111,113,149]
Thus mercury has a greater effect on the functions of these brain areas.
13. Some mercury entering nasal passages is absorbed directly into the
olfactory lobe and brain without coming from blood.(34,47,55a).
14. Mercury is transported along the axons of nerve fibres (33,34,47,50).
15. Mercury from amalgam is transported freely via the blood after entering the
blood through the lungs (19,34,35).
16. Mercury has a long half life in the body and brain, and chronic low level
intake results in a slow accumulation in body tissues. (20,26,34,47) [etc.]
17. Methyl mercury is more toxic to some body processes than elemental mercury.
Mercury from amalgam is methylated by bacteria and candida albicans in the
mouth and intestines(51,53,54) [81.185,225]. Methyl mercury is 1000 times more
potent in causing genetic damage than any other known chemical(Ramel, in(47)).
18. The level of mercury in the brain tissue of the fetus, new born, and young
children is directly proportional to the number of amalgam surfaces in the
mother's mouth. (61,etc.) [112,113,114,204]
19. Mercury from amalgam in pregnant women crosses the placenta and appears in
amniotic fluid and fetal blood, liver, and pituitary gland within 2 days of
placement(18,31) [113,162,204]. Mercury is often stored in breast milk and the
fetus at much higher levels than that in the mother's tissues
(18,19,22,23,40,41,61) [112,114,204]. The highest level is in the pituitary
gland of the fetus which affects development of the endocrine,immune, and
reproductive systems.
20. There is a significant correlation between the number of amalgam fillings
of the mother and the level of the fetus and older infants[112,113,114,204],
and also with the level in mothers milk(18,19,61) [112,113]. Fertile women
should not be exposed to vapor levels above 10 mcg/M3 (38,61)[195].
III. Medical Studies Finding Health Problems Related to Amalgam Fillings
1. Toxic/allergic reactions often result in lichen planus lesions in oral
mucosa or gums and play a roll in pathogenesis of periodontal disease. Removal
of amalgam fillings usually results in cure of such lesions.
[82,86,87,90,94,101,133,145,192]
2. Numerous studies have found long term chronic low doses of mercury cause
neurological, memory, behavior, and mood problems(34) [71,74,107,108,109, 115,
119,140,141,196,222]. Organic tin compounds formed from amalgam are even more
neurotoxic than mercury(222).
3. Studies of groups of patients with amalgam fillings found significantly more
neurological, memory, mood, and behavioral problems than the control groups.
(34) [107,108,109,140,141,196,222]
4. Mercury binds to hemoglobin in the red blood cells thus reducing oxygen
carrying capacity(1,16,17,21,26,35,47), and at 1 ppm can destroy the membrane
of redblood cells(35,47,22,17) and damage blood vessels- reducing blood supply
to the tissues(34). These effects often result in fatigue and reduced enery
levels [115,119,140,141,202,212,235]. Mercury also accumulates in the heart and
damages mycardial and heart valves(Turpayev, in 47)& 205).
5. Mercury amalgam exposure adversely affects the immune system(27,34,48)
[77,78,118,199,226]. One of several effects is to increase the average blood
white cell count by 2000 to 10000 (47). The increased white count usually
normalizes after amalgam removal. Mercury also blocks the immune function of
magnesium and zinc [197].
6. Mercury from amalgam interferes with production of cytokines, disabling
early control of viruses and leading to enhanced infection[131].
7. A group of patients with amalgam fillings and complaints of systematic
symptoms including central nervous system problems and a group of controls were
given MRI tests. 81% of the group with health complaints had pathological MRI
results including signs of degeneration of the basal ganglia of the brain, but
none in the controls. 60% of the symptom group tested positive for immune
system reaction to mercury. The authors concluded that immune reactions have an
important role in development of brain lesions ,and amalgam fillings induce
immune reactions in many patients[118].
8. Among a group of patients testing positive as allergic to mercury, low level
mercury exposure was found to cause adverse immune system response, including
reduction of in vitro production of tumor necrosis factor TNF alfa and
interleukin-1. [152]
9. Patch tests for hypersensitivity to mercury have found from 2% to 42% to
test positive[87,154,178]. In a study of medical students, 12.8% tested
positive as allergic to mercury, and those testing positive had significantly
higher average number of amalgam fillings than those not testing positive(and
higher levels of mercury in urine[132]. Other studies have found increasing
allergy to mercury related to amount of exposure and time period of
exposure[156,etc.]. If this is a good estimate of the percent of Americans
allergic to mercury, this would be about 30 million people especially
vulnerable to increased immune system reactions to amalgam fillings. However,
patch tests do not measure the total population getting toxic reactions from
mercury. The most sensitive reactions are immune reactions, DNA mutations, and
systemic effects(47).
10. Low level mercury exposure including exposure to amalgam fillings has been
found to be associated with increased auto immune diseases , including
lupus,Chrons disease, lichen planus, endometriosis (1, 14, 17, 19, 21,
25,27,34,35,42,43,44,45,47,49,55,60) [77,78,215,226]. Silver, like mercury, is
released from amalgam fillings and stored in the body and has been shown to
cause immune reactions and autoimmunity in animal studies [77, 78, 129,226]
11. People with amalgam fillings have an increased number of intestinal
microorganisms resistant to mercury and many standard antibiotics.
(47,58)[116,117] Studies have found a significant correlation between mercury
resistance and multiple antibiotic resistance[116,117,161].
12. Mercury from amalgam binds to the -SH (sulphydryl) groups, resulting in
inactivation of sulfur and blocking of enzyme function, producing toxicity.
Sulfur is essential in enzymes, hormones, nerve tissue, and red blood cells.
These exist in almost every enzymatic process in the body. Mercury also blocks
the metabolic action of manganese and the entry of calcium ions into cytoplasm.
Mercury from amalgam thus has the potential to disturb all metabolic
processes(25,33,47,60)[180,197}. Mercury is transported throughout the body in
blood and can affect cells in the body and organs in different ways.
13. Several studies found adverse health effects at mercury vapor levls of 1 to
5 mcg/M3 (47).
14. Mercury accumulates in the kidneys with increasing levels over time.
Mercury exposure has been shown to adversely affect kidney function in
occupational and animal studies(59,203,211,etc.). The Governent's toxic level
for mercury in urine is 30 mcg/L [189], but low levels in urine often mean high
mercury retention and chronic toxicity problems.
15. Amalgam fillings produce electrical currents which increase mercury vapor
release and may have other harmful effects(19,27,28,29,35,47,56)[194]. These
currents are measured in micro amps. The central nervous system operates on
signals in the range of nano-amps, which is 1000 times less than a micro
amp(28). Negatively charged fillings or crown apear to cause higher mercury
vapor losses(47).
16. Mercury from amalgam fillings is transferred to the fetus of pregnant women
and children who breast feed at levels often higher than those of the
mother(18,19,31,61) [112,113,114,195,204]. Mercury has an effect on the fetal
nervous system at levels far below that considered toxic in adults, and
background levles of mercury in mothers correlate significantly with incidence
of birth defects and still births[204,38].
17. Since mercury is documented from studies of humans and animals to be a
reproductive and developmental toxin[105,146,224], mercury can reduce
reproductive function and cause birth defects and developmental problems in
children. (2,3,4,20,24,31,37,38,39,40,41,49)[224]. Clinical evidence indicates
that amalgam fillings leads to hormone imbalances that can reduce
fertility(199,38). Some researcher's advise pregnant women should not be
exposued to mercury vapor levels abouve 10 mcg/M3 (61)[195] and several
governments have bans or restrictions on use of amalgam by women of
child-bearing age.
18. Mercury causes breaks in DNA (41,42,)[197]. Low non-cytotoxic levels of
mercury induce dose dependent binding of mercury to DNA and significantly
increased cell mutations[142] and birth defects[197,38].
19. Mercury by its effect of weakening the immune system contributes to
increased chronic diseases and cancer[222,234,etc,]. Amalgam fillings have also
been found to be positively associated with mouth cancer(206).
20. In addition to the endocrine system disrupting effects of high mercury
accumulation in the pituitary gland, mercury causes a reduction in thyroid
production and an accumlation in the thyroid of radiation. Mercury's adverse
influence on thyrocytes can play a major role in thyroid cancer etiology[144].
Mercury has been found to affect hormone production at very low
concentrations(199).
21. Allergies and hair-loss were found to be 2-3 times as high in a group with
large number of amalgam fillings compared to controls(199). Higher levels of
hormone disturbances, immune disturbances, rececurrent fungal infections were
also found in the amalgam group.
22. There has been no evidence found that there is any safe level of mercury in
the body that does not kill cells and harm body processes(WHO,183, etc.).
Mercury levels of 10ppm severely disturb cellular function, and growth of nerve
fibers are affected at much lower levels[181]. This is especially so for the
pituitary gland of the developing fetus which is the most sensitive to
mercury(2-4,19-24,30,31,36,37,39-44).
23. The level of mercury released by amalgam fillings is often more than the
levels documented in medical studies to produce adverse effects(see previous
text).
IV. Health Effects from Dental Personnel Exposure to Mercury Vapor.
1. Dentists and dental personnel who work with amalgam are chronically exposed
to mercury vapor.(1,6-12,32,34,36) [72,122,123,124,171,172,173] Studies note
that carpeting in dental offices should be avoided as it is a major repository
of mercury[188]. Mercury levels in urine of dental personnel average about 2
times that of controls(123,124,171) and was 43 nmol/liter for a population
surveryed in Sweden(171), which is above the Swedish occupational exposure
guideline.
2. Drilling old amalgam fillings with only a saliva extractor and no other
precautions produces mercury vapor levels 2 to 15 times occupational threshold
limit values(30 micrograms/cubic meter)[120,219].
3. The average dental office exposure affects the body mercury level
approximately the same as having 19 amalgam fillings[123,124,173].
4. Body burden increases with time and older dentists have median mercury urine
levels about 4 times those of controls, as well as higher brain and body
burdens(13,34) [70-74,122]. Some older dentists have mercury levels in some
parts of the brain as much as 80 times higher than normal levels(14,34).
5. Dentists and dental personnel experience significantly higher levels of
neurological, memory, mood, and behavioral problems, which increase with years
of exposure(13,34,49) [69-74,88,122,188].
6. Female dental technicians who work with amalgam have significantly reduced
fertility and lowered probability of conception(3,24,38)[121], and their
children have significantly lower average IQ compared to the general
population(13). The level of mercury excreted in urine is significantly higher
for female dental assistants than dentists(171,172,173).
7. Many homes of dentists have been found to have high levels of mercury
contamination aused by dentists bringing it home on shoes and clothes[187]. 8.
Some studies have found increased risk of lung, kidney, brain, and CNS system
cancers among dental workers(14,34)[143].
8. Autopsies of former dental staff found levels of mercury in the pituitary
gland averaged over 10 times that of controls(99), as well as higher levels in
the occiptial cortex and renal cortex and thyroid.
V. Results of Removal of Amalgam Fillings.
1. For the week following amalgam removal, body mercury levels increase approx.
30 % (unless Chelation is also used), but within 2 weeks levels fall
significantly.[82,89]
2. Removal of amalgam fillings resulted in a significant reduction in body
burden and body waste product load of mercury[75,82,88,89,93,95,96,125,200].
3. Total reduction in mercury levels in blood and urine is often over 80%
within a few months[82,89,93,96,200].
4. There are extensive documented cases (many thosands) where removal of
amalgam fillings led to cure of serious health problems such as periodontal
diseases, immune system problems,allergies, asthma,multiple sensetivites,
epilepsy, blood conditions, stomach pain, depression, mental confusion,
infertility, lupus, MS, chronic fatigue syndrome(CFS),arthritis, tachycardia,
universal reactors, etc. or significant improvement in symptoms
[75,86-91,94-
103,125,148,165.167.168,170,180,182,192,199,200,222,229,233,234,235,237].
Interviews of a large population of Swedish patients that had amalgams removed
due to health problems found that virtually all reported significant health
improveents and that the health improvements were permanent(233).(study period
17 years) A compilation of an even larger population found similar results
(237). For example 89% of those reporting alergies had significant improvements
or total elimination; extrapolated to U.S. population this would represent over
17 million people who would benefit regarding allergies alone.
5. Some studies of patients with major neurological or degenerative diseases
such as Alzheimers ,ALS,MS,Parkinson's,etc. have found evidence amalgam
fillings may play a major role in development of that condition
(66,67,92,97,98,100,102,145,148,158,159,163,166,169,170,175,183,184,207,21
3,218,221,228].< BR> Very high levels of mercury are found in brain memory
areas such as the cerebral cortex and hippocampos of patients with diseases
with memory related symptoms[158]. Studies have found mercury related mental
effects to be indistinguishable from those of MS(207). Mercury at extremely low
levels interfers with formation of tubulin producing neurofibrillary tangles in
the brain simiar to those observed in Alzheimers patients with high levels of
mercury in the brain(207). Also mercury binds with cell membranes enterferring
with sodium and potassium enzyme functions, causing excess membrane
permiability, especially in terms of the blood-brain barrier [159,207]. Less
than 1ppm mercury in the blood stream can impair the blood-brain barrier.
Mercury was also found to accumulate in the mitochodria and interfer with their
vital functions, and to inhibit cytochrome C ensymes which affect energy supply
to the brain. Persons with extra Apo-E4 gene copies are especially susceptible
to this damage(207,221). In many cases (many thousand documented)removal of
amalgam fillings and treatment for metal toxicity led to "cure' or significant
improvement in health[97,100,102,148,170,207, 213,222,234,237]. There is some
evidence that some forms of leukemia are abnormal response to antigenic
stimulation by mercury or other such toxics and removal of amalgam has led to
remission in some cases(47)[180].
6. Mercury exposure through fillings appears to be a major factor in chronic
fatigue syndrome(CFS) through its promotion of growth of candida albicans in
the body and the methylation of inorganic mercury by candida to the extremely
toxic methyl mercury form which crosses the blood brain barrier and also
damages and weakens the immune system [225,226,234,235,237,etc.]. Methyl
mercury has also been shown in animal studies to induce autoimmune reactions
and disease through its affects on immune system T cells(226,etc.)
VI. Scientists and Government Panels or Bodies That Have Found Amalgam Fillings
to be Unsafe.
1. A World Health Organzation Scientific Panel concluded that there is no safe
level of mercury exposure(183,208,238). The Chairman of the panel, Lars Friberg
stated that "dental amalgam is not safe for everyone to use(208,238).
2. In 1987 the Federal Dept. of Health in Germany issued an advisory warning
aginst use of dental amalgam in pregnant women(61). A Swedish National Mercury
Amalgam Review Panel found that "from a toxicological point of view, mercury is
too toxic to use as a filling material"[164]. The U.S. EPA found that removed
amalgam fillings are hazardous and must be exposed of as hazardous waste(214).
Most European countries require controls on dental waste amalgam emissions to
sewers or air. A Canadian Government study for Health Canada concluded that any
person with any number of amalgam fillings receives expsoure beyond that
recommened by the USPHS Standard(209). Many of those researching amalgam
related health effects including several very prominant scientists have
concluded that the health effects are widespread and serious so that mercury
should not be used as a filling material
(1,18,19,26,36,38,61) [88,94,99,100,113,115,125,126,148,153,164,170,183,208,
209,210,222,227,236,237,238,239].
3. The use of mercury amalgams has been banned for children and women of
child-bearing age or put on a schedule for phase out by 4 European countries.
The use of amalgam is declining in Europe and Germany's largest producer of
amalgam has ceased production, The director of the U.S. Federal program
overseeing dental safety advises against using mercury amalgam for new
fillings.
References to this document